ПРАКТИЧЕСКАЯ ФОНЕТИКА
СОВРЕМЕННОГО АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА

1. The "strong" pronunciation is regularly:
   • [æ], as in cat [kæt], captain ['kæptɪn], at [æt];
   • [eɪ] as in face [feɪs], able ['eɪbl], take [teɪk].
2. Where a is followed by r, the "strong" pronunciation is [ɑː], as in:
   • start [stɑːrt], smart [smɑːt], depart [dɪ'pɑːt].
   OR
   Where a is followed by r + vowel the "strong" pronunciation is [eə], as in:
   • square [skweə], parent ['peər(ə)nt], bare [beə], dare [deə], Mary ['meərɪ] (but marry ['mærɪ]).
   Although in this position there may be pronunciation [æ]: Christmas carol ['kær(ə)l] (Note also carrel ['kærəl]).
3. Less frequently the "strong" pronunciation is [ɑː], especially if a is followed by th, st, ss, ff, ft, sk, nc, nch (in British pronunciation) as in:
   • father ['fɑːðə], bath [bɑːθ], cast [kɑːst], class [klɑːs], staff [stɑːf], shaft [ʃɑːft], after ['ɑːftə], ask [ɑːsk], dance [dɑːns], branch [brɑːnʧ], half [hɑːf], palm [pɑːm], calm [kɑːm].
4. If a is followed by lk, ll the pronunciation is [ɔ:], as in:
   • talk [tɔːk], walk [wɔːk], stalk [stɔːk], all [ɔːl], ball [bɔːl], small [smɔːl].
5. If a is preceded by w(h)/qu the pronunciation is [ɔ], as in:
   • watch [wɔʧ], what [wɔt], was [wɔz], want [wɔnt], quantity ['kwɔntətɪ].
6. If a is preceded by w/qw and followed by r the pronunciation is [ɔ:], as in:
   • war [wɔː], wart [wɔːt], warm [wɔːm], quarter ['kwɔːtə], reward [rɪ'wɔːd], warn [wɔːn].
   Note the pronunciation of the words any ['enɪ], many ['menɪ].
   Note that where the spelling is a the pronunciation is never [ʌ] (compare cup [kʌp]).
7. The "weak" pronunciation of a is [ə], as in about [ə'baut], according [ə'kɔːdɪŋ] or [ɪ], as in

1. The pronunciation of the digraphs ai/ay is [eɪ], as in:
   • rain [reɪn], day [deɪ];
   OR, before r [eə], as in:
   • fair [feə].
2. Occasionally the pronunciation of these digraphs is "weak":
   • [ə] or [ɪ]: captain ['kæptɪn], ['kæptən].
   Note the exceptions says [sez] (but say [seɪ]), said [sed], again [ə'gen], [ə'geɪn], against [ə'genst], [ə'geɪnst].

1. The pronunciation of these digraphs is regularly [ɔː], as in author ['ɔːθə], law [lɔː], saw [sɔː].
2. In a few words, the pronunciation is [ɑː], as in laugh [lɑːf], aunt [ɑːnt].
3. In loanwords from foreign languages the pronunciation is [əu], as in gauche [gəuʃ], mauve [məuv], or [au], as in sauerkraut ['sauəkraut], gaucho ['gauʧəu], or, in BrE only, [ɔ], as in sausage ['sɔsɪʤ], laurel ['lɔrəl].
4. In unaccented syllables, it is pronounced [ə], e. g. in restaurant ['restərɔnt].

1. Where the spelling is b, the pronunciation is regularly [b], as in baby ['beɪbɪ].
2. Where the spelling is bb the pronunciation is again [b], as in shabby ['ʃæbɪ].
3. b is silent in two groups of words:
   • before t in debt [det], doubt [daut], subtle ['sʌtl];
   • after m at the end of a word or stem, as in climb [klaɪm], comb [kəum], lamb [læm], thumb [θʌm], tomb [tuːm], bomb [bɔm], bomber ['bɔmə].

1. Where the spelling is c, the pronunciation is regularly [k] in the following positions:
   • when c is followed by one of a, o, u, as in cat [kæt], camp [kæmp], curl [kɜːl];
   • when c is at the end of a word, as in basic ['beɪsɪk];
   • when c is followed by a consonant letter, as in cry [kraɪ].
2. The pronunciation is regularly [s], when c is followed by one of e, i, y as in central ['sentr(ə)l], city ['sɪtɪ], cycle ['saɪkl], face [feɪs].
   Note also Caesar ['siːzə].
3. Where c at the end of a stressed syllable is followed by e or i plus a vowel within a word, the pronunciation is regularly [ʃ], as in precious ['preʃəs], special ['speʃəl], musician [mjuː'zɪʃ(ə)n].
   
   • In these cases, the e or i is silent as usually applies when the following vowel is weak; but when the vowel after the e or i is strong, the pronunciation is [ɪ], as in speciality [ˌspeʃɪ'ælətɪ].
   • Sometimes there is an alternative possibility with [s], as in appreciate [ə'priːʃɪeɪt], associate [ə'səuʃɪeɪt], [ə'səusɪeɪt], oceanic [ˌəuʃɪ'ænɪk].
   • Where there is another [ʃ] in the same word, the tendency to dissimilate means that many speakers prefer [s] as in association [əˌsəusɪ'eɪʃən], pronunciation [prəˌnʌnsɪ'eɪʃən].
4. Correspondingly, when the spelling is cc, the pronunciation is [k] in most positions, as in account [ə'kaunt]; but [ks] when followed by one of e, i, y as in accept [ək'sept].
5. Correspondingly, too, when the spelling is sc, the pronunciation is:
   • [sk] in most positions as in describe [dɪ'skraɪb];
   • [s] when followed by one of e, i, y as in scent [sent], disciple [dɪ'saɪpl];
   • [ʃ] when at the end of a stressed syllable and followed by i plus a vowel within a word, as in luscious ['lʌʃəs].
6. c is silent in a couple exceptional words including muscle ['mʌsl], indict [ɪn'daɪt], Connecticut [kə'netɪkət].

1. Where the spelling is the digraph ch, the pronunciation is regularly [ʧ], as in chip [ʧɪp], or [ʃ] as in machine [mə'ʃiːn], or [k] as in chemistry ['kemɪstrɪ].
   ch may also form part of the trigraph sch.
2. Where the spelling is the trigraph sch, the pronunciation is regularly [ʧ], as in fetch [feʧ].
3. Otherwise, there is no reliable rule for choosing between the three ch possibilities. In general, [ʧ] is the pronunciation in long-established words, as in cheese [ʧiːz], chain [ʧeɪn], coach [kəuʧ].
   
   • [nʃ] is also a less usual option in place of [nʧ] at the end of a syllable, as in lunch [lʌnʧ];
   • [ʃ] is the pronunciation in recent loanwords from French as champagne [ʃæm'peɪn], parachute ['pærəʃuːt], machine [mə'ʃiːn], moustache [mə'stɑːʃ], chic [ʃiːk];
   • [k] is the pronunciation in words of Greek origin, as in chaos ['keɪɔs], echo ['ekəu], monarch ['mɔnək].
   • Where ch is followed by a consonant letter, the pronunciation is always [k] as in Christmas ['krɪsməs], technical\ ['teknɪkəl].
4. After s the pronunciation is usually [k], as in school [skuːl].
   
   • Occasionally sch is a trigraph and the corresponding pronunciation is [ʃ]; this applies in words borrowed from German, certain proper names, and the traditional British English pronunciation of schedule ['ʃedjuːl](BrE)/schedule ['skeʤuːl] (AmE).
5. Occasionally, the pronunciation is:
   • [ʤ], as in the most usual version of sandwich ['sænwɪʤ], ['sæn(d)wɪʧ], spinach ['spɪnɪʧ], ['spɪnɪʤ], Greenwich ['grɪnɪʤ];
   • [x] in certain words from foreign languages as in loch [lɔx] with [k], as an anglicizing alternative;
   • ch is silent in some exceptional words including yacht [jɔt];
     
   • [ʧ] is also sometimes written t as in question ['kwesʧən], natural ['næʧ(ə)r(ə)l] (Note also nature ['neɪʧə]);
     
   • [ʧ] is also sometimes written c, as in cello ['ʧeləu].

Where the spelling has the digraph ck the pronunciation is always [k], as in back [bæk], acknowledge [ək'nɔlɪʤ].

Assimilation is the alteration of a speech sound to make it more similar to its neighbours. In English it mainly affects place of articulation.

1. The alveolar consonants [t], [d], [n], when they occur at the end of a word or syllable can optionally assimilate to the place of articulation of the next syllable ("regressive" assimilation). Thus [n] can become [m] before [p], [b], [m], as in the examples:
• ten men [ˌten 'men] → [tem 'men];
• downbeat ['daunbiːt] → ['daumbiːt].
What’s happening here? When one word ends in the sound [n] and the next word begins with a [p], [b], [m] sound, then the [n] from the end of the word changes to an [m] sound as your mouth gets ready to pronounce the next sound. So ‘Green Park’ becomes ‘Greempark’.
2. Similarly, [n] can become [ŋ] before [k], [g], as in:
   • fine grade [ˌfaɪn 'greɪd] → [ˌfaɪŋ 'greɪd];
   • incredible [ɪn'kredɪbl] → [ɪŋ'kredɪbl].
3. In the same way [d] can change to [b] and [g] respectively, as in:
   • red paint [ˌred 'peɪnt] → [ˌreb 'peɪnt];
   • admit [əd'mɪt] → [əb'mɪt];
   • bad guys [ˌbæd 'gaɪz] → [ˌbæg 'gaɪz].
In everyday speech, when we’re speaking fluently, if one word ends in a vowel sound followed by a [d] and the next begins in a [b], then the [d] changes to a [b] and then merges with the [b] from the following word. So ‘speed boat’, becomes ‘speebboat’.
4. It is also possible for [t] to change to [p] and [k], as in:
   • eight boys [ˌeɪt 'bɔɪz] → [ˌeɪp 'bɔɪz].
5. In the same way [s] and [z] can change to [ʃ] and [ʒ] respectively before [ʃ] or [j] at the beginning of the next syllable. In you, your the [j] may then disappear:
   • this shape [ˌðɪs 'ʃeɪp] → [ˌðɪʃ 'ʃeɪp];
   • these shoes [ˌði:z 'ʃu:z] → [ˌði:ʒ 'ʃu:z];
   • this unit [ˌðɪs 'ju:nɪt] → [ˌðɪʃ 'ju:nɪt];
   • unless you [ən'les ju] → [ən'leʃ (j)u];
   • as you see [ˌæz ju 'si:] → [ˌæʒ (j)u 'si:].
6. Assimilation can also sometimes operate in the other direction ("progressive" assimilation). In English this applies only to syllabic [n], changing to syllabic [m] or [ŋ] as appropriate.
   
   • bacon ['beɪkən] → ['beɪkn] → ['beɪkŋ]
   • up and down [ˌʌp ənd 'daun] → [ˌʌp n 'daun] → [ˌʌpn 'daun]
   This assimilation can operate only if the words are said without a phonetic [ə] between the plosive and the nasal. Furthermore, it cannot apply if the sound after the nasal is a vowel.
   
   • happens ['hæpənz] → ['hæpnz] → ['hæpmz]
   • happened ['hæpənd] → ['hæpnd] → ['hæpmd], but happening ['hæpənɪŋ] → ['hæpnɪŋ] – cannot assimilate further.
   All these alterations occur only in fast, fluent speech.

It is often difficult to hear the difference between these numbers. Notice the different stress: forty ['fɔːtɪ], fourteen [ˌfɔː'tiːn]

1. The stress on thirty, forty, etc. does not usually vary: He's forty. That's forty pounds.
2. The stress on thirteen, fourteen, etc. varies according to context. The stress is on the first syllable of the number if the word is followed by a noun: She's fourteen. That's fourteen pounds.
3. If we list the -teen words, the stress will be on the first syllable.
4. If dates have two -teen parts, the first number has unstressed -teen part, while the second one has stressed -teen part:
   • 1919 nineteen nineteen
   • 1815 eighteen fifteen

To sound friendly and interested when you greet someone, your intonation should start high, that is, you can use the Falling nuclear tone or the Falling-Rising tone, combines with a high level or stepping head:
`Hi! He`'llo! `Morning! How `are you? — `Fine, "thanks.

Wh-questions (Special questions)

1. Use a high head plus the Rising tone if you want to show as much interest in the other person as in the subject:
   'How is your "daughter? 'When did you get 'back from "holiday? 'When are they 'coming to "see us?
2. If you want the question to sound business-like and interested in the subject, and also for one-word questions (unless they are repetition-questions), use a high-level or stepping head plus the Falling tone:
   'Why did you 'change your `mind? 'Who on 'earth was `that? `Which?
3. For repetition questions, when you are repeating someone else's question or when you want the other person to repeat some information, use Low Rise (the rise begins on the wh-word):
   "When did I go? "Why?
   It took me two hours. — "How long?
   Notice that this intonation pattern can be used to show surprise or disbelief:
   A: Ben suggested that we should get married.
   B: "What did he suggest?

General questions

1. As a rule, these questions are pronounced with the Rising tone:
   'Have you "seen him yet? 'Can I "see it?
2. The same tone is used for repetition-questions of this type:
   Will you help me? — 'Will I "help you?

1. Where the spelling is d the pronunciation is regularly [d], as in dead [ded].
2. Where the spelling is double dd, the pronunciation is again [d], as in middle ['mɪdl].
3. Less frequently the pronunciation is [ʤ], as in gradual ['græʤuəl] / ['grædjuəl], procedure [prə'siːʤə].
   This possibility arises through yod coalescence and applies only where the spelling is d and u counts as a weak vowel.
   In RP [ʤ] is always an alternative possibility often preferred. In GenAm though, [ʤ] is usual as in educate ['eʤəkeɪt] / ['edjukeɪt].
   In much non-standard BrE the pronunciation is also [ʤ] in words such as duke [djuːk], reduce [rɪ'djuːs], wherever RP would have [dj].
4. The verb ending in ed has three regular pronunciations [d], [t], [ɪd].
   Note that after a voiceless consonant the pronunciation is regularly [t], as in clapped [klæpt], asked [ɑːskt].
5. In certain positions d can be elided. In some words the elided pronunciation is now established so that d is now usually silent in, for example, sandwich ['sænwɪʤ] / ['sæn(d)wɪʧ]. Also in Wednesday ['wenzdeɪ].

1. Double consonant letters in English spelling normally correspond to a single sound in pronunciation: happy is pronounced ['hæpɪ] (not ['hæppɪ]); rabbit rhymes perfectly with ['hæbɪt].

2. An exception arises in a few words with cc and ss.

3. The other important exception is where two letters in question belong to two different parts of a compound word, or one to a stem and one to an affix. Then the two letters correspond to two phonemes. Examples: nighttime ['naɪttaɪm], unnamed [ʌn'neɪmd], meanness ['miːnnəs]. Adverbs in -ly, however, usually drop one [l] when attached to a stem ending in [l]: fully ['fulɪ].

1. Double consonant sounds ("geminates" ['ʤemɪnɪts] — consisting of identical adjacent speech sounds, esp. consonants; doubled), are found in English only across grammatical boundaries: where two words occur next to one another in connected speech, or in the two parts of a compound word, or a stem and an affix. They always straddle a syllable boundary, too. Examples are: a nice sight [ə ˌnaɪs 'saɪt], midday [ˌmɪd'deɪ], soulless ['səulləs].

2. Although cases like these consist of two identical phonemes in succession, they are not usually pronounced as two distinct complete sounds. The details depend on their manner of articulation.

   • In case of fricatives and sonorants a geminate is pronounced like a single sound, except that it lasts longer. In this set [ˌðɪs 'set] the two [s] come together to make a long [s:] between the two vowels, straddling the syllable boundary. In ten names we get a long [n:].

   • In case of plosives a geminate is pronounced like a single sound, with just one sequence of approach — hold — release; but in a geminate the hold is longer. In big game [ˌbɪg 'geɪm] there is a single phonetic [g:] between the two vowel, straddling the syllable boundary.

   • Affricates are the only cases where two successive complete consonant sound are pronounced independently, one after the other. So, in rich choice [ˌrɪʧ 'ʧɔɪs] the fricative part of the first [ʧ] can be separately heard before the beginning of the second [ʧ]. In orange juice there are two separate [ʤ].

1. Where the spelling is e, the pronunciation differs according to whether the vowel is short or long, followed or not by r and strong or weak.
2. The "strong" pronunciation is regularly [e] as in dress, bet, elm, check or [i:] as in cathedral [kə'θiːdrəl], even ['iːvən], these [ðiːz], be [biː].
3. Where e is followed by r, the "strong pronunciation" is:
   • [ɜː], as in serve [sɜːv], her [hɜː], err [ɜː], prefer [prɪ'fɜː];
   • [ɪə], as in severe [sɪ'vɪə], sphere [sfɪə];
   • or there may be the regular "short" pronunciation [e], as in very ['verɪ].
4. The "weak pronunciation" is [ɪ], as in review [rɪ'vjuː], object ['ɔbʤɪkt] (although some speakers use [ə]), ['ɔbʤəkt], although where the spelling el, ence, ent, er), the "weak pronunciation" is the rule with unaccented syllables: quarrel ['kwɔrəl], bribery ['braɪbərɪ].
5. Less frequently, the "strong pronunciation" is:
   • [ɪ] in the exceptional words pretty ['prɪtɪ], England ['ɪŋglənd], English ['ɪŋglɪʃ];
   • [eə] in where, there (strong form) and a few others;
   • [eɪ] in foreign borrowings such as suede [sweɪd];
   • [ɑː] (in BrE only) as in clerk [klɑːk], Derby ['dɑːbɪ] and a few others.
6. E is frequently silent. At the end of a word, for example, it is silent if it follows a consonant letter, as in make, life, notice, orange, face huge, collapse, twelve.
   In this position it may have the function of indicating that the vowel before the consonant is long (make, life, these); or that c or g is "soft" (notice, orange); or both of these (face, huge); or neither (collapse, twelve).
7. In a few cases, at the end of a word after a consonant the pronunciation is [ɪ], as in apostrophe [ə'pɔstrəfɪ], catastrophe [kə'tæstrəfɪ], simile ['sɪmɪlɪ].
8. E also forms part of the digraphs ea, ee, ei, eu, ew, ey.

1. Where the spelling is the digraph ea, there are, notoriously, several different pronunciations:
   • the most usual is [i:], as in tea [tiː]; [e], as in bread [bred];
   • less frequently it is [eɪ], notably in great [greɪt], steak [steɪk], break [breɪk];
   • [ɪə], notably in idea [aɪ'dɪə], theatre ['θɪətə], real [rɪəl].
2. Where ea is followed by r, the pronunciation is regularly:
   • [ɪə], as in near [nɪə];
   • [ɜː], as in early ['ɜːlɪ] and several others;
   • [ɑː], as in heart [hɑːt], hearth [hɑːθ];
   • [eə], notably in bear [beə], pear [peə], swear [sweə], wear [weə] and one meaning of tear [teə] (note also tear [tɪə]).
3. Ea is not a digraph in words such as creation [krɪ'eɪʃən], react [rɪ'ækt], area ['eərɪə].

1. Where the spelling is digraph ee, the pronunciation is regularly [i:], as in tree [triː], breed [briːd]; or, before r, [ɪə], as in beer [bɪə].
2. Exceptionally, the pronunciation is regularly [i:], as in coffee ['kɔfɪ], committee [kə'mɪtɪ], breeches ['brɪʧɪz], Greenwich ['grɪnɪʤ] / ['grenɪʧ].

1. Less frequently, it is:
2. Where the spelling is one of the digraphs ei, ey, the pronunciation is most frequently [eɪ], as in veil [veɪl], convey [kən'veɪ], skein [skeɪn].
• [i:], as in receive [rɪ'siːv], ceiling ['siːlɪŋ], key [kiː];
• in a few words [aɪ], as in height [haɪt], eye [aɪ];
• [e], as in heifer ['hefə], leisure ['leʒə], Leicester ['lestə].
3. Where the spelling is ei before r, the pronunciation is:
   • [eə], as in their [ðeə];
   • [ɪə], as in weird [wɪəd].
4. Note the exceptional either, neither with [aɪ] in British English / [i:] in American English.
5. ei is not a digraph in words such as atheism ['eɪθɪɪzəm], deity ['deɪɪtɪ] / ['diːɪtɪ].

1. These digraphs are regularly pronounced:
   • [ju:], as in feudal ['fjuːdəl], few [fjuː];
   • [u:], as in rheumatism ['ruːmətɪzəm], crew [kruː].
2. Exceptionally, it is also:
   • [əu], as in sew [səu];
   • [ɜː] in French words, as masseur [mæ'sɜː];
   • [ɔɪ] in German-derived words, as in Freudian ['frɔɪdɪən].
3. Note also lieutenant [lef'tenənt].
4. Where eu is before r, the pronunciation is regularly [juə], as in Europe ['juərəp].

When a word that ends in a vowel is followed by a word that begins with a vowel, English speakers will often insert an extra sound in order to link the vowels together to make the flow of speech more smooth and to avoid the 'gap' between the words.

Linking [r]

1. When a word ending in -r or -re is immediately followed by a word beginning with a vowel, the sound [r] is pronounced at the end of the first word joining it to the next one. The revived r-sound is called the linking [r]:
   never again, a roar of laughter, an error of judgment, for instance.
2. If there is no 'r' in spelling, the inserted r-sound is called the intrusive [r]:
   the idea of the book, Asia and Africa.
   

   Learners of English are not recommended to use the intrusive [r] as it is generally disapproved of by many RP speakers (although it may be useful to be aware of this phenomenon). As for the linking [r] it is recognized as a typical feature of the English Standard Pronunciation. Notice, however, the absence of linking [r] in such 'inconvenient' word sequences as 'a roar of laughter', 'an error of judgement'.

Consonantal glides [w] and [j]

3. When two vowels meet at word-boundaries and there is no [r] available, English speakers insert very short, never articulated fully [w] or [j]. The choice of either [w] or [j] depends on the vowel that ends the first word. If the word final vowel is of u-type — [u:], [u], [au], [əu] — then the linking glide will be [w]. If the word final vowel is of i-type — [i:], [ɪ], [ɑ:], [aɪ], [ɔɪ], [eɪ] — the linking glide [j] is inserted.

   
   how often [hau ^w 'ɔftən], they are [ðeɪ ^j ɑː]

In English phonetics Yod coalescence is a form of assimilation, a phenomenon which takes place when [j] is preceded by certain consonants most commonly [t] and [d]:

• [t] + [j] = [ʧ]
  'What you `need. [wɔ'ʧuː `niːd]
  The 'ball that you `brought. [ðə 'bɔːl ðə ʧuː `brɔːt]
  But 'use your `head! [bə 'ʧuːz jə `hed]
  Last `year. [lɑːs`ʧɪə]
• [d] + [j] = [ʤ]
  'Could you "help me? ['kʊʤu "help miː]
  'Would your 'brother "come? ['wʊʤɔː 'brʌðə "kʌm]
  'Had you been there be"fore? ['hæʤuː biːn ðeə bɪ"fɔː]
  In `second year [ɪn `sekənʤɜː]
• In a similar way [s] + [j], and [z] + [j] can sometimes be pronounced as [ʃ] and [ʒ] respectively.

Yod coalescence is common in colloquial speech and is becoming ever more so. Note that it can occur within words (tube [tjuːb] = [tʃuːb]) and between word boundaries (as in the above examples). The fact that two extremely recurrent words in English, you and your, start with [j] means that understanding of this simple mechanism is vital to the understanding of spoken English. Do you is often pronounced as [dʒə]:

Prepositions have strong and weak forms depending on whether they are stressed or unstressed. In the sentences where prepositions come in the middle, they are normally unstressed and weak in pronunciation. In the questions where prepositions come at the end, or in the contrast situations they are stressed and strong in pronunciation. The preposition is weakly stressed before a pronoun:

I'd like a cup of tea for [fə] breakfast. He went to London from [frəm] Rome. What's that for [fɔː]?
Where are you from [frɔm]?
The letter is from [frɔm] him, not to [tuː] him. She wrote the letter to [tə] them.
I had a quick look at [ət] it.
Dad bought that book for [fə] me.

Some adjectives can be formed using suffixes -ful and -less which are not stressed and pronounced [fəl], [ləs], as in
painful ['peɪnfəl] painless ['peɪnləs] faithful ['feɪθfəl] faithless ['feɪθləs]

-ful is also used to form nouns denoting the amount needed to fill the specified container, holder, etc. In this case -ful-suffix is always pronounced as [ful]:
a cupful, a mouthful, a handful, a spoonful, a capful, a bucketful, a shovelful, a pocketful, a plateful.

Very often, when we do not fully agree with somebody, but want to be polite, we show this in the intonation and stress patterns we use, rather than by changing the actual words. So if you agree with what is said or suggested, use the Falling tone:

- 'Could we do it to"morrow?
- `Yes, I 'suppose we `could.

When you don't fully agree, use the Falling-Rising tone:

- 'Could we do it to"morrow?
- Yes, I `suppose we "could.

1. Where the spelling is f or ff, the pronunciation is [f], as in fifty ['fɪftɪ], stiff [stɪf].
2. Exceptionally, the word of is pronounced with [v]: a piece of wood [ə ˌpiːs əv 'wud].
3. F is silent in the word halfpenny ['heɪpnɪ] (but for the British coin in use 1971–1985, also [ˌhɑːf 'penɪ]).
4. The sound [f] is also regularly written ph, as in photograph, and occasionally gh, as in rough [rʌf].

1. The pronunciation of g regularly is [g], as in gas [gæs]. Less frequently, it is [ʤ], as in gentle [ʤentl]. Occasionally, it is [ʒ], as often in garage ['gærɑːʒ] / [gə'rɑːʒ] / ['ɡærɪdʒ].
2. [ʤ] and [ʒ] are found in certain words where g is followed by e, i, y — mostly words of French or Latin origin. Thus, on the one hand we have [g] as in get [get], give [gɪv], but on the other [ʤ] as in ginger ['ʤɪnʤə], general ['ʤenərəl].
3. Where the spelling is the digraph dg before e, i, y, the pronunciation is always [ʤ] as in edge [eʤ], elegy ['elɪʤɪ] / ['eləʤɪ].
4. Where the spelling is double gg the pronunciation is regularly [g] as in egg [eg]. Occasionally, it is [ʤ] as in exaggerate [ɪg'zæʤəreɪt], suggest [sə'ʤest].
5. [g] is silent before m, n, but only at the beginning or end of a word stem, as in gnat [næt], sign [saɪn], phlegm [flem], foreigner ['fɔrɪnə].
6. The sound [g] is also occasionally written gh, as in ghost [gəust], or gu, as in guess [ges].

There are several possible pronunciations of gh: [g], as in ghost [gəust]; [f], as in rough [rʌf], or silent after i and sometimes other vowel letters, as in high [haɪ], eight [eɪt], daughter ['dɔːtə].

1. This digraph can be pronounced [g], as in guess [ges], vague [veɪg], or [gw], as in language ['læŋgwɪʤ].
2. Generally speaking, [g] is found at the beginning of a word and at the end of a word before silent e; [gw] is found in the middle of a word.
3. Most instances of gu are not digraphs: gun [gʌn], regular ['regjələ], argue ['ɑːgjuː].

1. Its pronunciation is regularly [h], as in house [haus], hurray [hə'reɪ].
   The letter h may also form part of one of the digraphs ch, gh, ph, rh, sh, th, wh.
2. H is silent in a number of cases:
   • at the beginning of the exceptional words heir [eə] (but hair [heə]), honest ['ɔnɪst], honour ['ɔnə], hour [auə] and their derivatives: honourable ['ɔn(ə)rəbl], honesty ['ɔnɪstɪ] / ['ɔnəstɪ], hourly ['auəlɪ], etc.;
   • at the end of a word after a vowel letter, as in oh [əu], hurrah [hə'rɑː];
   • in most cases where it is at the beginning of a weak-vowelled syllable, as in the weak forms of he, her, his, has, have; in words such as annihilate [ə'naɪəleɪt], vehicle ['vɪəkl], ['viːɪkl].
3. The sound [h] is also occasionally written wh, as in who [huː].

This ending is often pronounced [(ə)n]. In the words ending in -ion the stress is always on the penultimate [pə'nʌltɪmət], last but one syllable, e. g. profession [prə'feʃən], devotion [dɪ'vəuʃən], concussion [kən'kʌʃən]. Note that the secondary stress occurs on the third syllable if we move backward from the main stress:
revolution [ˌrevə'luːʃ(ə)n], contribution [ˌkɔntrɪ'bjuːʃən], exhibition [ˌeksɪ'bɪʃən].

Sequences of consonants are characterized by the following phenomena: loss of aspiration, fricative plosion, loss of plosion, nasal plosion, lateral plosion, assimilation. Explain what is meant by these terms. Note that at the beginning of English words there may be either two or three consonants in sequence. At the end of words there may be two, three or four consonants in sequence, for example, facts [fækts], fifths [fɪfθs], plunged [plʌnʤd], twelfths [twelfθs].

Longer consonants occur in phrases where one word ends with a consonant sequence and the next word begins with one, for example, in The banks closed. [ðə 'bæŋks `kləuzd] there is a sequence [ŋkskl]. As always there is a smooth passage from each consonant to the next, with no gap. Read the examples with seven consonant sound in row:

The text's stupid. [ðə 'tekst `stjuːpɪd]

She tempts strangers. [ʃiː 'tempts `streɪnʤəz]

Note that all these sequences are pronounced in slow, careful speech.

All these prefixes are used to make opposites. In-, im-, ir-, il-, dis-, un- are not usually stressed, but if the following syllable is unstressed, then the prefix is stressed.

impossible [ɪm'pɔsəbl], but immemorial [ˌɪmɪ'mɔːrɪəl] disable [dɪ'seɪbl], but disagreeable [ˌdɪsə'griːəbl]

unwieldy [ʌn'wiːldɪ], unable [ʌn'eɪbl], unwind [ʌn'waɪnd], uncoil [ʌn'kɔɪl], but unashamed [ˌʌnə'ʃeɪmd], unaware [ˌʌnə'wɛə].

Sometimes we need to sound sympathetic and friendly and our intonation is important. Look at these dialogues and practise saying these phrases:

• A: 'Jack and 'I have decided to get `married. B: Congratu`lations!
• A: Good-`bye, "John. B: `See you "later.
• A: To your `health! B: `Cheers!
• A: I'm 'going to 'ask my bank 'manager for a `loan. B: 'Good "luck.
• A: Auntie Margaret's ill again. B: I'm `sorry to "hear that.
• A: We're 'off to 'Spain on `Monday. B: `Have a nice "time.

These questions consist of the auxiliary verb and a pronoun:

They are used in the conversation to show interest, to keep the conversation going. The typical intonation of such short questions is Low Rise:

A: My 'brother 'wrote a `book. B: "Did he?

When used with the Falling tone these short questions sound ironic, skeptical:

A: The 'book has become a best-`seller. B: `Did it?

1. Where the spelling is i the pronunciation differs according to whether the vowel is short or long, followed or not by r, and strong or weak.
2. The "strong" pronunciation is regularly:
   • [ɪ], as in bit [bɪt] (short [ɪ]);
   • [aɪ], as in time [taɪm], hi [haɪ] (long [ɪ]).
   For the first type of pronunciation, there has to be a checked (closed) syllable, e. g. sick, bliss, hill.
3. When i is followed by r, the strong pronunciation is:
   • [ɜː], as in firm [fɜːm], fir [fɜː];
   • [aɪə], as in fire ['faɪə], hire ['haɪə], virus ['vaɪərəs];
   • or indeed the regular "short" pronunciation of the consonant, as in miracle ['mɪrəkl].
4. Less frequently, the "strong" pronunciation is [i:], as in machine [mə'ʃiːn]. This is the case of Romance borrowings (more specifically French) borrowings; other such examples: sardine [sɑː'diːn], routine [ruː'tiːn], police [pə'liːs], etc.
5. The "weak" pronunciation is:
   • [ɪ], as in rabbit ['ræbɪt] (although some speakers, esp. of AmE use [ə] instead, thus ['ræbət]);
   • [ə], as in admiral ['ædmərəl], aspirin ['æspərɪn], university [ˌjuːnɪ'vɜːsətɪ], defensible [dɪ'fensəbl].
6. Where the next sound is a vowel, the "weak" pronunciation is:
   • [ɪ], as in medium ['miːdɪəm];
   • the i is silent, serving only to indicate the pronunciation of the preceding consonant, as in special ['speʃəl].
7. In the rare cases where i is found at the end of a word, the pronunciation is either "strong" [aɪ], as in hi [haɪ], or weak [ɪ], as in spaghetti [spə'getɪ].
   I also forms part of the digraphs ai, ei, oi, ui.

1. Where the spelling is the digraph ie, the pronunciation is regularly:
   • [i:], as in piece [piːs];
   • [aɪ], as in tie [taɪ], pie [paɪ];
   • [ɪə], as in fierce [fɪəs] (before r).
2. The "weak" pronunciation in -ied/-ies is usually [ɪ], as in buried ['berɪd], carried ['kærɪd].
   Note the exceptional friend [frend] and sieve [sɪv].
   Note also the usual pronunciation of handkerchief ['hæŋkəʧɪf], mischief ['mɪsʧɪf], movie ['muːvɪ].
3. ɪe is not a digraph in science ['saɪəns], society [sə'saɪətɪ], acquiesce [ˌækwɪ'es].

1. It is regularly pronounced [ʤ], as in jump [ʤʌmp].
2. Occasionally, in words of foreign origin, it is [ʒ], as in jabot ['ʒæbəu] or [j], as in hallelujah [ˌhælɪ'luːjə].
3. [ʤ] is also regularly written dg or g, as in hedge [heʤ], large [lɑːʤ].

1. Where the spelling is k, the pronunciation is regularly [k], as in kind [kaɪnd]. In the digraph ck the pronunciation is again [k], as in back [bæk].
2. Kk is silent at the beginning of a word when followed by n, as in knee [niː].
3. [k] is also regularly written c, as in cat [kæt], and k as in back [bæk]. It is sometimes written cc, as in account [ə'kaunt]; qu, as in queue [kjuː] and in various other ways.

When and is not stressed, it is pronounced [ənd], or [ən]. The former is considered to be slightly more formal than the latter. In fast speech d disappears. It is called elision of [d].

Indirect questions are usually said with the Falling tone combined with a high level or stepping head. Compare:

General question: 'Do you "know that?

Special question: What 'happened to our `neighbour? but

Indirect question: 'Do you 'know what 'happened to our `neighbour?

1. A spelling pronunciation of a word is a pronunciation that, unlike the traditional pronunciation, corresponds closely to the spelling.

2. Examples of spelling pronunciation often heard from native speakers of English include ate [eɪt] (rather than [ət]), envelope ['envələup] (rather than ['ɔnvələup]). People who first encounter the word awry as a written form sometimes fail to recognize it as prefix a- plus stem wry, and infer a spelling pronunciation [ɔː'rɪ] rather than the proper [ə'raɪ].

3. Learners of EFL should avoid using spelling pronunciation that native speakers do not use. Do not, for example, use a strong vowel [ɔː] in the second syllable of effort ['efət], information [ˌɪnfə'meɪʃən], Oxford ['ɔksfəd]. Do not pronounce b in climb [klaɪm] or debt [det]. Do not use [ɑː] in the first and last syllables of particular [pə'tɪkjələ] / [pə'tɪkjulə].

4. British place-names are especially difficult. Spelling pronunciation of Gloucester ['glɔstə], Harwich ['hærɪʧ] / ['hærɪʤ], Leicester ['lestə], Norwich ['nɔrɪʤ], Salisbury ['sɔːlzbərɪ] sound absurd and would possibly not be understood.

1. For tag questions after commands, use the Rising tone:
   'Come over `here, "will you?
   'Let's have some `music, "shall we?
   'Hold `this for me, "would you?
2. If neither the statement nor the tag question have the word 'not' in them, use Rise:
   You `liked it, "did you?
   They'd 'like some `more, "would they?
3. If the word 'not' occurs in either the statement or the tag question use Fall to force the other person to agree with you:
   It's a 'very 'good `film, `isn't it?
   You 'won't "worry, `will you? He 'can't 'really `help it, `can he?
4. When you don't want the other person to agree with you, but to give his/her opinion, use the Rising tone.
   You're 'coming to `tea with us, "aren't you? You 'weren't `here "yesterday, "were you? He `doesn't look "ill, "does he?

Where the spelling is l or double ll, the pronunciation is regularly [l], as in little ['lɪtl], silly ['sɪlɪ].

Ll is silent in a fair number of words, especially when it stands between:

• a and f, as in half [hɑːf];
• a and k as in talk [tɔːk];
• a and m, as in salmon ['sæmən].

Note also could [kud], should [ʃud], would [wud].

Where the spelling is m or double mm, the pronunciation is regularly [m], as in medium ['miːdɪəm], hammer ['hæmə].

1. Where the spelling is n, the pronunciation is regularly [n], as in nation ['neɪʃən] or [θ] as in think [θɪŋk]. N also forms part of the digraph ng.
2. The pronunciation is [n] everywhere except:
   • before the sound [k] (written c, g, k, q, x);
   • where the spelling is the digraph ng, in which cases the pronunciation is regularly [ŋ].
   Examples: [n] in net [net], fan [fæn], unit ['juːnɪt], enter ['entə];
   [ŋ] in uncle ['ʌŋkl], anger ['æŋgə], thanks [θæŋks], conquer ['kɔŋkə], anxious ['æŋkʃəs], wing [wɪŋ].
3. Where the spelling is double nn, the pronunciation is again regularly [n], as in funny ['fʌnɪ].
4. N is silent when it follows m at the end of a word, and in the corresponding inflected forms, as in column ['kɔləm], condemned [kən'demd], but hymnal ['hɪmnəl].

1. Where the spelling is the digraph ng, the pronunciation is regularly:
   • [ŋ], as in singing ['sɪŋɪŋ];
   • [ŋg], as in angle ['æŋgl];
   • [nʤ], as in strange [streɪnʤ].
2. The pronunciation is [ŋ], when ng is in the middle of a word or stem. Examples: hang [hæŋ], singer ['sɪŋə], strongly ['strɔŋlɪ].
3. The pronunciation is usually [ŋg] when ng is in the middle of a word (and not at the end of a stem). Examples: hungry ['hʌŋgrɪ], finger ['fɪŋgə], single ['sɪŋgl].
4. The pronunciation is [nʤ]:
   • where the spelling is nge at the end of a word, as in challenge ['ʧælɪnʤ];
   • sometimes before e, i, y, in the middle of a word, as in danger ['deɪnʤə].
5. The three pronunciations corresponding to the spelling ng are illustrated in the same context in the sets:
   singer ['sɪŋə] hanger ['hæŋə] anger ['æŋgə] finger ['fɪŋgə] ginger ['ʤɪnʤə] danger ['deɪnʤə]
6. When n belongs to a prefix and g to a stem, they do not form a digraph. Consequently, the pronunciation is usually [n], as in ingenious [ɪn'ʤiːnɪəs].
7. However, where the g is hard, then the [n] may become [ŋ] by assimilation. This is regular where the syllable containing the nasal is stressed, as in congress ['kɔŋgres], and otherwise optional, as in conclusion [kən'kluːʒən] / [kəŋ'kluːʒən]. (The assimilation seems to be usually made in BrE but rare in AmE.)

As you know modal verbs have strong and weak forms. Their strong forms must be used when modals are stressed or when they are final in the group.

"Can I?

They 'can speak 'English `better than us. Otherwise their weak forms must be used.

Such phrases as can't have, must have in fast speech are pronounced as ['kɑːntəv], ['mʌstəv].

Anti- is often used as a prefix for words in a political context. It means 'against'. Its opposite is 'pro-'.

Anti- is pronounced ['æntɪ] and in the words it is always stressed; the stress is either primary or secondary: antibiotic [ˌæntɪbaɪ'ɔtɪk], antidote ['æntɪdəut].

Pro- is pronounced [prəu] (meaning "in favour of"): pro-French [prəu'frenʧ].

This prefix means 'bad' or 'badly', it is never reduced and usually stressed in nouns and adjectives, but not in verbs:

maladministration [ˌmælədˌmɪnɪs'treɪʃən]

to maltreat [mæl'triːt]

A homograph is a word spelt like another, but with a different meaning or pronunciation: I won't desert you. They were stuck in a desert.

a desert ['dezət] — a large area of land where it is always very dry, there are few plants, and there is a lot of sand or rocks

Do not confuse with dessert [dɪ'zɜːt] (= the sweet part of a meal).

A homonym is a word spelt and pronounced like another, but with a different meaning: I'm talking about the present, not the future. I got her a set of glasses as a leaving present.

present ['prezənt] — happening or existing now

a present ['prezənt] — something you give someone on a special occasion or to thank them for something

The words per cent are pronounced [pə'sent].

99.9 % is pronounced as [ˌnaɪntɪ 'naɪn 'pɔɪnt 'naɪn pə'sent]

0.5 % is pronounced as ['nɔːt pɔɪnt 'faɪv pə'sent]

0.33 % is pronounced as ['nɔːt pɔɪnt 'θɜːtɪ θriː pə'sent]

Such requests and offers look like general questions. Pronounced with the High falling tone in combination with a high or stepping head, the question sounds as a polite suggestion, offer, invitation:

'Shall I 'open the `door for you?

'Could you 'give me a 'hand with these `books?

1. Where the spelling is o, the pronunciation differs according to whether the vowel is short or long, followed or not by r, and strong or weak.
2. The "strong" pronunciation is regularly:
   • [ɔ], as in lot [lɔt], odd [ɔd], pond [pɔnd], respond [rɪ'spɔnd];
   • [əu], as in nose [nəuz], both [bəuθ], hole [həul], so [səu].
3. Less frequently it is:
   • [ʌ], as in come [kʌm], especially before m, n, v, th: some, one, none, done, won, son, ton, doth [dʌθ], dove, glove, love;
   • [uː], as in move [muːv]; [u], as in woman ['wumən].
     Note also [ɪ] in women ['wɪmɪn];
   • [ɔ] in cross [krɔs] (but some speakers of AmE use [ɑː] instead, thus cross [krɑːs]).
     Note also the exceptional gone [gɔn].
4. Where the spelling is or, the "strong" pronunciation is [ɔː], as in north [nɔːθ], store [stɔː], or indeed in BrE the regular "short pronunciation" [ɔ], as in moral ['mɔrəl].
5. Less frequently, it is:
   • [ɜː], as in work [wɜːk], worm [wɜːm] (especially after w);
   • [ʌ], as in worry ['wʌrɪ], love, son.
6. The "weak pronunciation" is [ə], as in method ['meθəd], Oxford ['ɔksfəd].

1. Where the spelling is the digraph oa the pronunciation is regularly:
   • [əu], as in road [rəud], oat [əut];
   • [ɔː] as in board [bɔːd], roar [rɔː] (before r).
   Note the exceptional words broad [brɔːd] (and derivatives abroad [ə'brɔːd], broaden ['brɔːdn], cupboard ['kʌbəd] (when in unaccented syllables).
2. oa is not a digraph in oasis [əu'eɪsɪs], Noah ['nəuə], coalescence [kəuə'lesəns], protozoa [ˌprəutə'zəuə].

1. Where the spelling is the digraph oe the pronunciation is regularly [əu], as in toe [təu], doe [dəu], foe [fəu].
2. Exceptionally it is:
   • [uː] as in shoe [ʃuː], canoe [kə'nuː];
   • [ʌz] as in does [dʌz];
   • [iː], in Phoenix ['fiːnɪks] and other words of Greek origin.
3. oe is not a digraph in poem ['pəuɪm], poetic [pəu'etɪk], coerce [kəu'ɜːs], Noel [nəu'el].

1. Where the spelling is one of the digraphs oi, oy, the pronunciation is regularly [ɔɪ], as in noise [nɔɪz], boy [bɔɪ].
2. In words of French origin, the pronunciation is often [wɑː], as in patois ['pætwɑː], boudoir ['buːdwɑː].
3. Occasionally, oi is weak, as in the usual pronunciation of tortoise ['tɔːtəs].
   Note the exceptional words choir ['kwaɪə], buoy [bɔɪ].
4. oi is not a digraph in coincidence [kəu'ɪnsɪdəns], soloist ['səuləuɪst].

1. Where the spelling is the digraph oo the pronunciation is regularly:
   • either [uː], as in food [fuːd];
   • or [u], as in good [gud].
   There is no rule, although [u] is commoner before k, as in book [buk]; also exceptionally soot [sut].
   In some words, both pronunciations are in use, as room [ruːm] / room [rum], broom [bruːm] / [brum].
2. Less frequently, the pronunciation is [ʌ], as in blood [blʌd], flood [flʌd].
3. Where the spelling is oor, the pronunciation is:
   • [ɔː], as in door [dɔː];
   • or [uə], as in moor [mɔː] / [muə].
   Note the exceptional word brooch [brəuʧ].
4. oo is not a digraph in zoology [zuː'ɔləʤɪ] / [zəu'ɔləʤɪ], cooperate [kəu'ɔpəreɪt].

1. Where the spelling is one of the following digraphs ou, ow, the pronunciation is regularly [au], as in round [raund], cow [kau].
2. Less frequently, it is:
   • [əu], as in soul [səul], own [əun];
   • [ʌ], as in touch [tʌʧ], couple ['kʌpl], courage ['kʌrɪʤ];
   • [uː], as in group [gruːp].
   Note also the exceptional could [kud], should [ʃud], would [wud] (when ou is followed by l).
3. Then the spelling is the notorious ough the pronunciation may be any of the following:
   • [ɔː], as in thought [θɔːt];
   • [uː], as in through [θruː];
   • [au], as in bough [bau], slough [slau];
   • [əu], as in though [ðəu], dough [dəu];
   • [ʌ], as in rough [rʌf], tough [tʌf];
   • [ɔ], as in cough [kɔf], trough [trɔf];
   • [ə], as in thorough ['θʌrə].
   There are also other possibilities in loch [lɔx], hiccough / hiccup ['hɪkʌp].
4. Where the spelling is our, owr, the pronunciation may be:
   • [auə], as in flour ['flauə], flower ['flauə], our ['auə], sour ['sauə];
   • [ɔː], as in four [fɔː], pour [pɔː], court [kɔːt];
   • [ɜː], as in journey ['ʤɜːnɪ], courteous ['kɜːtɪəs];
   • [ʌ], as in courage ['kʌrɪʤ];
   • [uə], as in tourist ['tuərɪst], tour [tuə];
   • [u] in the exceptional courier ['kurɪə].

1. Where the spelling is p, the pronunciation is regularly [p], as in pipe [paɪp].
   P also forms part of digraph ph.
2. Where the spelling is pp, the pronunciation is again regularly [p], as in happy ['hæpɪ].
3. P is usually silent at the beginning of a word before: n, s, t as in pneumonia [njuː'məunɪə], psalm [sɑːm], psychiatrist [saɪ'kaɪətrɪst], pterodactyl [ˌterə'dæktɪl]; also, at the end of a word: receipt [rɪ'siːt].

1. Where the spelling is the digraph ph, the pronunciation is regularly [f], as in photograph ['fəutəgrɑːf].
2. Exceptionally, it is:
   • [p], as in shepherd ['ʃepəd] (in this word the h was originally part of a suffix, and hence silent);
   • [v], as in Stephen ['stiːvən] and nephew ['nefjuː] / ['nevjuː].

1. Except in occasional words from foreign languages, the letter q is always followed by u.
   Where the spelling is the resultant digraph qu, the pronunciation is regularly [kw], as in quite [kwaɪt], or [k], as in picturesque [ˌpɪkʧə'resk].
2. The pronunciation is generally [kw] except in the case of que at the end of a word.
   Examples: queen [kwiːn], square [skwɛə], equal ['iːkwəl], liquid ['lɪkwɪd], conquer ['kɔŋkə].
3. In the case of que at the end of a word, and also in a minority of other cases, the pronunciation is [k].
   Examples: clique [kliːk], cheque / check [ʧek], queue [kjuː], liquor ['lɪkə].
4. Where the spelling is cqu, the pronunciation is again [kw], as in acquaintance [ə'kweɪntəns], or [k] as in lacquer ['lækə].

Contracted forms (or "short" forms) are used a lot in conversational English.

Here is the list of the most common contractions with pronouns:

A short form can also come after a noun:

Vicky's lost her bank card. ['vɪkɪz 'lɒst (h)ə `bæŋk kɑːd] The card'll be in here. [ðə 'kɑːdəl bɪ 'ɪn `hɪə]

Jack's been sent for. ['ʤæks bɪn `sent fɔː] The place's changed. [ðə 'pleɪsəz `ʧeɪnʤd]

There are short forms with question words and with here, there and that:

Examples: Who's that? That's John. That's enough. That'll do.

"Not" can be contracted when used after some verbs:

Remember you can shorten either not or the verb:

It is not funny. → It isn't funny. OR It's not funny. But we cannot use n't after I:

I am not sure. → I'm not sure. NOT I amn't sure.

Watch the videos for additional information on contractions and reductions from native speakers.

Oo — stress on the second syllable from the end: the most words of two syllables, and most longer words ending in -ic, -ive, and -tion

Ooo — stress on the third syllable from the end: most words of three syllables or more ending in -ity, -logy, -graphy, -cracy, -sophy and others.

Also -tory (when pronounced [-trɪ]).

Oooo — stress on the fourth syllable from the end: most words of four syllables or more ending in -ator, -ary, -acy, -mony, and others.

oO — stress on the last syllable: most words with "foreign" endings, like -oo, -ette, -elle, -ine, -esque, -eer, -ique, and others.

We can show degrees of future probability by the auxiliary verbs we use:

She will come tomorrow. (certain)

She might / may / could come tomorrow. (possible)

We can also use intonation and stress with might and may to show if these possibilities are unlikely or not. So if your sentence is an unlikely possibility, use Fall-Rise divided:

She `might come to"morrow. He `may come "later.

If you feel more certain about the possibility, use the Falling tone:

She 'might come to`morrow. He 'may come `later.

When we criticize somebody or something we can use emphatic intonation:

Their 'house is "so f`ilthy.

Their 'living-room is "so `messy.

But to be tactful you should use the words 'not very' plus positive adjectives form and change the statement into a disjunctive question with the Falling tone in both parts:

Their 'house is so `filthy. It's 'not very `tidy, `is it?

1. Where the spelling is r, the pronunciation is regularly [r], as in run [rʌn].
2. Where the spelling is double rr, the pronunciation is regularly [r], as in merry ['merɪ].
3. When the spelling is r followed by a consonant letter or silent e, or r at the end of a word, the pronunciation differs in different varieties of English: in RP the r is silent.
   The same applies to most varieties of British English, to Australian English, and the other "rhotic" accents. In GenAm, the r coalesces with a preceding vowel.

In the middle or at the end of a word r frequently affects the preceding vowel. Consequently, ar, er, ir, or, ur, yr, could be regarded as digraphs, and air, are, ear, eer, eir, ere, eur, ier, ire, oar, oor, ore, our, ure as trigraphs.

R may appear in non-rhotic accents in certain cases, where no corresponding letter is written (intrusive r). When r is at the end of a word with or without silent e, it is silent. In connected speech, however, r may be pronounced if the next word begins with a vowel sound ("linking [r]").

Where the spelling is the digraph rh or its doubled form rrh, the pronunciation is regularly the same as that of the letter r: as in rhythm ['rɪðəm], rhapsody ['ræpsədɪ], or silent, as in catarrh [kə'tɑː].

1. Where the spelling is s, the pronunciation is regularly:
   • [s], as in sense [sens] ("voiceless s");
   • [z], as in rises ['raɪzɪz] ("voiced s");
   • less frequently, it is [ʒ], as in pleasure ['pleʒə].
2. At the beginning of a word, the pronunciation is regularly [s], as in say [seɪ], sleep [sliːp], stand [stænd].
   In this position, with spelling s, the pronunciation is never [z]. This also applies in compounds, for example, insight ['ɪnˌsaɪt].
3. Exceptionally, the pronunciation is [ʃ] at the beginning of the words sure [ʃɔː], [ʃuə] and sugar ['ʃugə] and their derivatives (for example assurance [ə'ʃuərəns], sugary ['ʃugərɪ]).
4. In the middle of a word, we must take account of the letters on either side of the s.
   Where s is between a vowel letter and a consonant letter, the pronunciation is usually [s] if the following consonant is voiceless, [z] if it is voiced.
   Thus [s] in taste [teɪst]; [z] in wisdom ['wɪzdəm], husband ['hʌzbənd]. Before silent t, however, the pronunciation is [s], as in listen ['lɪsən].
   Where s is between two vowel letters, the pronunciation may be either:
   • [s], as in basin ['beɪsn], crisis ['kraɪsɪs],
   • [z], as in poison ['pɔɪzən], easy ['iːzɪ].
   Note! There is no rule. Each word must be considered separately.
5. Where the spelling is s between a vowel and ion, ual, ure, the pronunciation is mostly [ʒ] as in explosion [ɪk'spləuʒən] / [ek'spləuʒən], usual ['juːʒəl], pleasure ['pleʒə].
6. Where the spelling is s between a vowel and ia, ian, speakers vary: some use [ʃ], some use [ʒ], as in Asia ['eɪʃə] / ['eɪʒə].
7. Where s follows a consonant letter, the pronunciation is usually [s] if the s follows one of the letters l, n, r or if the preceding sound is voiceless, but [z] otherwise.
   Thus,
   • [s] in consider [kən'sɪdə], cursor ['kɜːsə], gipsy / gypsy ['ʤɪpsɪ];
   • [z] in clumsy ['klʌmzɪ], observe [əb'zɜːv]. Compare insist [ɪn'sɪst] and resist [rɪ'zɪst].
   However, in some words both pronunciations are in use, for example translate [trænz'leɪt] / [træns'leɪt], absorb [əb'zɔːb] / [əb'sɔːb].
8. Where the spelling has s between l, n, r and -ion, -ial, -ure, the pronunciation is correspondingly [ʃ] (with i silent), as in expulsion [ɪk'spʌlʃən] / [ek'spʌlʃən], tension ['tenʃən], controversial [ˌkɔntrə'vɜːʃəl], Persian ['pɜːʃən] / ['pɜːʒən].
9. Where the spelling has s at the end of a word, or before silent e at the end of a word, the pronunciation may be either:
   • [s], as in gas [gæs], loose [luːs], case [keɪs];
   • [z], as in has [hæz], choose [ʧuːz], phrase [freɪz].
   For s in lse, rse, we usually get [s] as in else [els], immense [ɪ'mens], horse [hɔːs].
   Beyond this, there is no rule, each word must be considered separately. Sometimes there is a distinction between related parts of speech that are spelled identically, as with use ([juːs] noun, [juːz] verb) and close ([kləus] adjective, adverb, [kləuz] verb).
   But there are also cases with no such distinction, as promise ['prɔmɪs] and base [beɪs], always with [s].
   There is a BrE-AmE difference in the word erase [ɪ'reɪz] / AmE [ɪ'reɪs].
10. Where the spelling has double ss, the pronunciation is regularly [s], as in lesson ['lesən], kiss [kɪs].
    Exceptionally, it is [z], notably in the words dessert [dɪ'zɜːt], possess [pə'zes], scissors ['sɪzəz] and their derivatives.
    In -ssion, -ssia, -ssian, -ssure, it is [ʃ], as in mission ['mɪʃən], Russian ['rʌʃən], pressure ['preʃə].
11. S is silent in various words, including island ['aɪlənd] and several words of French origin, among them corps [kɔː] (note: one corps [kɔː] — two corps [kɔːz]) (compare corpse [kɔːps] — a dead body), aisle [aɪl], debris ['deɪbriː], viscount ['vaɪkaunt], Grosvenor ['grəuvnə], Illinois [ˌɪlɪ'nɔɪ].

1. This digraph is regularly pronounced [ʃ], as in sheep [ʃiːp], fish [fɪʃ].
   sh is not a digraph in words such as ['mɪshæp].
2. The spelling of certain proper names has been reinterpreted in pronunciation so as to make sh a digraph: Lewisham was once Lewis plus ham, but is now ['luːɪʃəm].
3. [ʃ] is also written in a number of other ways including those represented in the examples ocean ['əuʃən], machine [mə'ʃiːn], precious ['preʃəs], sugar ['ʃugə], conscience ['kɔnʃəns], compulsion [kəm'pʌlʃən], mission ['mɪʃən], creation [krɪ'eɪʃən].

1. Where the spelling is t the pronunciation is regularly [t], as in tent [tent], basket ['bɑːskɪt], later ['leɪtə].
2. Where the spelling is double tt the pronunciation is again regularly [t], as in button ['bʌtn], better ['betə], battle ['bætl], sitting ['sɪtɪŋ].
3. Less frequently, it is regularly:
   • [ʧ], as in nature ['neɪʧə], torture ['tɔːʧə], century ['senʧərɪ];
   • [ʃ], as in nation ['neɪʃən], ratio ['reɪʃɪəu], patience ['peɪʃəns].
4. The pronunciation of t is [ʧ] in most words ending in -ture, -tury for example departure [dɪ'pɑːʧə].
   Historically, this pronunciation came about through yod coalescence.
   More generally, the pronunciation is usually [ʧ] wherever the spelling is t followed by weak u, as in actual ['ækʧuəl], situated ['sɪtjueɪtɪd].
   In some words of this type, however, there is an older more careful pronunciation with [tj], and this is regularly the case where the u is strong, as in attitude ['ætɪtjuːd].
   In much British English, the pronunciation is also [ʧ] wherever conservative RP would have [tj], as in Tuesday ['tjuːzdɪ], tune [tjuːn].
5. When t at the end of a stressed syllable is followed by i plus a vowel within a word, the pronunciation is regularly [ʃ], as in partial ['pɑːʃəl], action ['ækʃən], superstition [ˌsuːpə'stɪʃən].
   When the following vowel is weak, as in the examples just given, the i is silent; but when it is strong, the pronunciation is [ɪ], as in initiative [ɪ'nɪʃətɪv], initiate [ɪ'nɪʃɪeɪt].
   Sometimes there is an alternative possibility with [s], particularly if the word already contains a [ʃ], as in negotiation [nɪˌgəuʃɪ'eɪʃən].
6. Tt is usually silent in two groups of words:
   • in -sten, -stle, as in listen ['lɪs(ə)n], thistle ['θɪsl]; also in Christmas ['krɪsməs], soften ['sɔfən], sometimes in often ['ɔftən] / ['ɔfən];
   • at the end of words recently borrowed from French, as chalet ['ʃæleɪ], ballet ['bæleɪ] / [bæ'leɪ], bouquet [bu'keɪ].
   The sound t is often elided in words such as postman.

1. Where the spelling is the digraph th, the pronunciation is regularly [θ] or [ð], as in thick [θɪk], mother ['mʌðə], father ['fɑːðə].
   Exceptionally, it is also [t] (mainly in proper names), as in Thomas ['tɔməs], Thames [temz], Anthony ['æntənɪ], Esther ['estə], Theresa [tə'riːzə], thyme [taɪm].
2. At the beginning of a word the pronunciation is [θ] or [ð] depending on the grammatical class to which the word belongs.
   In the definite article and other determiners, and in pronouns, conjunctions and pronoun adverbs, it is [ð], as in this [ðɪs], they [ðeɪ], though [ðəu], thus [ðʌs].
   Otherwise, it is [θ], as in three [θriː], thing [θɪŋ], thick [θɪk], thief [θiːf], thread [θred].
3. In the middle of a word (provided that th is not at the end of a stem), the pronunciation is generally:
   • [θ] in words of Greek or Latin origin, method ['meθəd], author ['ɔːθə], ether ['iːθə];
   • [ð] in words of Germanic origin, as father ['fɑːðə], together [tə'geðə], heathen ['hiːðən].
4. At the end of a word or stem, the pronunciation is usually:
   • [θ], as in breath [breθ], truth [truːθ];
   • [ð], as in smooth [smuːð] and one or two other words.
   Before silent e, and in inflected forms of the stems concerned, the pronunciation is regularly [ð], as in breathe [briːð], soothing ['suːðɪŋ] (from soothe [suːð]).
   Several stems switch from [θ] to [ð] on adding the plural ending (mouth [mauθ], mouths [mauðz]), on adding -ern, -early (northern ['nɔːðən], southerly ['sʌðəlɪ]), or on converting from noun to verb (to mouth [mauð]).
5. th is sometimes silent in asthma ['æsθmə] / ['æsmə], clothes [kləuðz] / [kləuz], isthmus ['ɪsməs] / ['ɪsθməs].
6. th is not a digraph in hothouse ['hɔthaus], apartheid [ə'pɑːtheɪt]. The trigraph tch is pronounced [ʧ], as in catch [kæʧ], watch [wɔʧ], kitchen ['kɪʧɪn].

1. In connected speech, when a word ends in r or re and the next word begins with a vowel sound, [r] is pronounced:
   far away [ˌfɑːrə'weɪ]
   near enough [ˌnɪərɪ'nʌf]
   This added [r] is known as linking [r]. It corresponds to a historical [r], now lost before a consonant or pause.
   Some RP speakers do not use the linking [r] and say never again as [nevə ə'gen], but most people do use it.
2. In RP the sound [r] is frequently added when there is no letter r in the spelling. This intrusive r does not correspond to historical [r]. For example:
   comma ['kɒmə] but Put comma in. ['pʊt ə`kɒmərɪn] Here are some expressions of 'intrusive r':
   Africa and Asia [ˌæfrɪkər ən'eɪʃə]
   I saw a man. [aɪ 'sɔ:r ə`mæn]

1. When you need noun, say [ju:s], as in use of English [ju:s əv 'ɪŋglɪʃ].
2. The verb use is pronounced [ju:z]:
   Can I use your phone? ['kæn 'ju:z jɔ:"fəʊn']
   She used false name [ʃi 'ju:zd ə'fɔ:ls `neɪm].
3. In the phrases be used to / get used to, 'used' is an adjective pronounced [ju:st]: I'm used to the hard work [aɪm 'ju:st tə ðə 'hɑ:d `wɜːk].
4. There is another adjective used (it is used before nouns) meaning "something that has already had an owner; second-hand" and pronounced [ju:zd]:
   a used car salesman [ə ju:zd ˌka: 'seɪlzmən].

Such adjectives as broad-shouldered, self-confident, clean-shaven can be used with a noun and without it. When they are not followed by a noun the main stress is on the second word and the secondary stress on the first word: ˌself- 'confident, ˌbroad-'shouldered.

She is 'so self-`confident. 'Is he broad-"shouldered?

She's got a 'really 'good-looking `boyfriend.

Look at this dialogue:

A: Amanda's well brought-up.
B: Amanda's well brought-up? I thought she was rather spoilt!

As you know the normal word order for questions is: "Is Amanda well brought up?" But here the statement word order is used — echoing A's words — to show surprise and to question A's opinion. To make a statement into an echo-question the intonation changes:

Statement: A\'manda's \'well brought-up. Echo-question: A\'manda's \'well brought-"up?

1. Where the spelling is u the pronunciation differs according to whether the vowel is short or long, followed or not by r, and strong or weak.
2. The "strong" pronunciation is regularly:
   • [ʌ], as in cup [kʌp], butter ['bʌtə];
   • [juː] / [uː], as in music ['mjuːzɪk], rude [ruːd], flute [fluːt].
3. Less frequently, it is [u], as in push [puʃ] (especially before sh, l). Also bull [bul], put [put], sugar ['ʃugə], butcher ['buʧə].
4. Where the spelling is ur, the "strong" pronunciation is:
   • [ɜː], as in turn [tɜːn], fur [fɜː];
   • [juə], as in pure [pjuə], curio ['kjuərɪəu], mural ['mjuərəl];
   • or there may be the "short" pronunciation [ʌ], as in hurry ['hʌrɪ].
   In AmE [ʌ] and [r] coalesce into [ɜː], thus hurry ['hɜːrɪ].
5. In the cases of expected [juː], [juə], [ju], the [j] drops out as follows:
   • after the consonant sounds [ʧ], [ʤ], [ʃ], [r], [j], as in jury ['ʤuərɪ], rude [ruːd];
   • sometimes, in BrE and always in AmE, after [l], [θ], [s], [z], as in assume [ə'sjuːm] / [ə'suːm].
   Note the exceptional words busy ['bɪzɪ], business ['bɪznəs], bury ['berɪ].
6. The "weak" pronunciation is:
   • [ju], as in stimulate ['stɪmjəleɪt];
   • [ə], as in album ['ælbəm], Arthur ['ɑːθə] (compare author ['ɔːθə]), or [jə], as in failure ['feɪljə].
   Note also lettuce ['letɪs], minute (N) ['mɪnɪt], (compare minute (Adj) [maɪ'njuːt]).
7. Uu also forms part of the digraphs ua, ue, ou, ui, uy.

The pronunciation of u in this digraph is [w], as in persuader [pə'sweɪdə], quarter ['kwɔːtə].

1. When the spelling is the digraph ue, the pronunciation is regularly [ju], as in cue [kjuː], or [kuː], as in blue [bluː], clue [kluː], true [truː].
2. ue is not a digraph in duet [dju'et], cruel ['kruːəl], [kruəl], pursuer [pə'sjuːə].

1. Where the spelling is the digraph ui, the pronunciation is regularly [juː], as in nuisance ['njuːsəns] / ['nuːsəns]; [uː], as in fruit [fruːt], cruise [kruːz].
2. Less frequently, the pronunciation is:
   • [ɪ], as in build [bɪld], guild [gɪld];
   • [aɪ], as in guide [gaɪd], disguise [dɪs'gaɪz]; also [ɪ], as in biscuit ['bɪskɪt].
   Note the exceptional suite [swiːt] (compare sweet [swiːt], suit [suːt] / [sjuːt]).
3. ui is not a digraph in fluid ['fluːɪd], tuition [tju'ɪʃən], nor in quick [kwɪk], quite [kwaɪt] (but quiet ['kwaɪət]) where the digraph qu is followed by i.

In the rare cases where the spelling is the digraph uy, the pronunciation is [aɪ], as in buy [baɪ], guy / Guy [gaɪ].

1. Where the spelling is v, the pronunciation is regularly [v], as in very ['verɪ].
2. [v] is also occasionally written:
   • vv, as in skivvy ['skɪvɪ], savvy ['sævɪ];
   • ph, as in Stephen ['stiːvən], nephew ['nefjuː] / ['nevjuː];
   • f in the single word of [ɔv], [əv], [v].

1. Where the spelling is w, either the pronunciation is [w] or else the w forms part of one of the digraphs aw, ew, ow. For example, swim [swɪm], away [ə'weɪ], few [fjuː].
2. w is always silent in wr at the beginning of a word or stem, as in wreck [rek], rewrite [ˌriː'raɪt]; also in the exceptionally spelled words two [tuː], answer ['ɑːnsə].
3. [s] is also regularly written u, as in persuade [pə'sweɪd], as part of the digraph qu, as in quite [kwaɪt].

1. Where the spelling is the digraph wh, the pronunciation in most cases is [w].
2. Occasionally, the pronunciation is [h], as in whole [həul], who [huː] (usually before o).

Elision is the eliding (omission, deletion) of a sound that would otherwise be present. It is particularly characteristic of rapid or casual speech. It is not random, but follows certain rules.

1. Some types of possible elision can occur within words in isolation. In English they include:
   • the elision of the middle part of [ntʃ] and [nʤ].
     For example, lunch is pronounced [lʌnʧ] or, alternatively, [lʌnʃ]; strange [streɪnʤ] or [streɪnʒ].
   • the elision of the middle part [mps], [mpt], [nts], [ŋks], [ŋkt].
     For example, jumped [ʤʌmpt] can be pronounced [ʤʌmt]; lynx [lɪŋks] or [lɪŋs].
2. Other types of possible elision apply in compound words and in connected speech. They include the elision of [t] and [d] at the end of a word, before a consonant at the beginning of the next word. Thus:
   • [t] may be elided in [ft], [st], and less commonly in [pt], [kt], [tʃt], [θt], [ʃt];
   • [d] may be elided in [ld], [nd], and less commonly in [bd], [gd], [ʤd], [vd], [ðd], [zd], [md], [ŋd].
   For example:
   next [nekst] — In isolation, or before a vowel sound, this word is pronounced [nekst]. But in a phrase such as next thing, next question it is often pronounced [neks], with elision of the [t].
   stand [stænd] — In isolation, or before a vowel sound, this word is pronounced [stænd]. But in a phrase such as stand clear, stand firm it is pronounced [stæn], with elision of the [d].
3. The contracted negative n't [^ə^nt] is a special case. Its [t] may be elided in connected speech, no matter what kind of sound follows. Thus when didn't ['dɪd^ə^nt] is followed by another word or phrase, it is sometimes pronounced ['dɪd^ə^n].
4. The consonant [h] is often elided in unstressed syllables, and especially in weak forms of function words. Thus him is [hɪm] in isolation, or if stressed, but often [ɪm] when unstressed in a phrase such as tell him.
5. The vowel [ə] can be elided in such words as police [pli:s], camera ['kæmrə]. But where there are two possibilities it is best for you to use the longer form ([pə'li:s], ['kæmərə]).
   Note the words where vowels disappeared in the past, for example, family ['fæmlɪ], interest ['ɪntrəst], history ['hɪstrɪ].

The common type of multi-word verbs follows the pattern below: She 'took off her `hat. (+ noun object)

She 'took her `hat off. (+ noun object) She 'took it `off. (+ pronoun object)

The stress in multi-word nouns is always on the first part. 'look-out, 'breakdown, 'make-up, 'take-off

The stress in multi-word verbs varies. The usual pattern is oO, but sometimes it can be Oo, depending on the context.

Our 'car has broken `down again. They 'broke down the `door.

1. Abbreviations are written without full stops in modern British English. Full stops (US 'periods') are normal in American English. For example:
   Mr (US Mr.) = Mister (not usually written in full)
   Ltd (US Ltd.) = Limited (company)
   Kg (US kg.) = kilogram
2. Some abbreviations are made from the first letters of several words. This often happens with the names of organisations:
   The BBC = the British Broadcasting Corporation
   UNESCO = United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation. Some initial-letter abbreviations are pronounced letter by letter (e. g. the BBC). Others are pronounced like words (e. g. UNESCO) — these are often called acronyms.
3. Letter-to-letter abbreviations are most often stressed on the last letter. the BBC [ðə biːbiː'siː]
   If the abbreviation has an article (a/an or the), the form and the pronunciation of the article depends on the pronunciation of the first letter of the abbreviation. Compare:
   a US diplomat [ə juː......] an MP [ən em ......] the RSPCA [ðɪ ɑːr......]
4. Articles are usually dropped in acronyms (abbreviations that are pronounced like words).
   UNESCO (Not the UNESCO)
5. An apostrophe (') is sometimes used before the s in the plural of the abbreviations:
   MP's or MPs; CD's (= 'compact disks') or CDs.

Abbreviations that are common at work:

• ETA — estimated time of arrival
What is the ETA on that report you are writing?
• TBA — to be announced, to be advised
The date for the big client meeting is still TBA.
• BTW — by the way
BTW, the boss needs to see you in her office in five minutes.
• COB — close of business
Can you get me those documents by COB?

Every day abbreviations:

• BFF — best friends forever
This is my BFF, we have known each other since kindergarten.
• DIY — do it yourself (use this especially about art, craft, and work by hand)
She bought an old house that needs work because she loves DIY.
• DM — direct message, meaning send an online message to me personally.
If you need more information just DM me.

As you know, the usual pattern for question tags is:

positive sentence + negative tag: You're a teacher, aren't you?
negative sentence + positive tag: You're a writer, are you?

But sometimes, when we want to show surprise or annoyance at something we've just heard or just realized, the pattern changes:

positive sentence + positive tag: You're a `millionaire, "are you?

The intonation always goes up at the end in surprise annoyance tag question.

In ordinary speech we often use contractions:

I'm sur`prised. She'll be disap`pointed. He's got a `sore throat. They've `done it.

Sometimes, when we need to give extra emphasis, we use full forms instead of contractions:

I `am surprised! She `'will be disap`pointed! He `'has got a `sore throat. They `have done it.

The auxiliary verb is always stressed in such phrases.

In the present and past simple we use do or did before the verb to give emphasis:

`Do have a "drink! I `did tell her before she "came!

1. The letter x is regularly pronounced:
   • [ks], as in box [bɒks], text [tekst], exercise ['eksəsaɪz];
   • [gz], when followed by a stressed vowel, as in exam [ɪg'zæm], exact [ɪg'zækt], exist [ɪg'zɪst];
   • [z] at the beginning of a word, as in xenophobia [ˌzenə'fəʊbɪə], xylophone ['zaɪləfəʊn];
   • [kʃ] in words like anxious ['æŋkʃəs], luxury ['lʌkʃərɪ];
   • [gʒ] in luxurious [lʌg'ʒʊərɪəs].
2. X is silent in a few words of French origin, such as faux [fəʊ], roux [ruː].

1. Where the spelling is y, the pronunciation differs according to position:
   • at the beginning of a word, y is a consonant pronounced [j], as in yes [jes], yellow ['jeləʊ], young [jʌŋ];
   • in the middle or at the end of a word, y is a vowel:
     • [ɪ] in unstressed syllables, as in happy ['hæpɪ], family ['fæmɪlɪ], gym [dʒɪm];
     • [aɪ] in stressed syllables, as in my [maɪ], by [baɪ], type [taɪp], cycle ['saɪkl];
     • [iː] in some foreign borrowings, as in encyclopedia [ɪnˌsaɪklə'piːdɪə], polymer ['pɒlɪmə];
     • [ə] in weak positions, as in martyr ['mɑːtə], satyr ['sætə].
2. Y also forms part of the digraphs ay, ey, oy, uy.

1. The letter z is regularly pronounced [z], as in zoo [zuː], zero ['zɪərəʊ], crazy ['kreɪzɪ].
2. Where the spelling is double zz, the pronunciation is again [z], as in buzz [bʌz], jazz [dʒæz].
3. In a few words of foreign origin, z may be pronounced [ts], as in pizza ['piːtsə], scherzo ['skeətsəʊ].

Review the main types of word linking in English:

1. Linking [r]: When a word ends in r or re and the next word begins with a vowel sound, the [r] is pronounced:
   far away, for ever, more interesting
2. Intrusive [r]: Some speakers add [r] even when no 'r' is present in spelling:
   Asia and Africa [ˌæfrɪkər ən'eɪʃə], the idea of it [ði aɪ'dɪər əv ɪt]
   (Learners are advised not to use intrusive [r] as it is disapproved of by many RP speakers.)
3. Consonantal glides [w] and [j]:
   how often [hau 'w'ɒftən], they are [ðeɪ 'j'ɑː]
4. Geminates (double consonants): When two identical consonant sounds meet across word boundaries, they are pronounced as a single long consonant:
   this set [ðɪs set] → long [s:], big game [bɪg geɪm] → long [g:]
5. Elision: Omission of sounds in rapid speech:
   next thing [neks θɪŋ], stand firm [stæn fɜːm]

It is important to distinguish between compound words and free phrases, as stress patterns differ:

• Compounds (single lexical items) typically have main stress on the first element:
  'greenhouse, 'blackbird, 'whiteboard, 'laptop
• Free phrases (adjective + noun) typically have main stress on the noun (the second element):
  green 'house, black 'bird, white 'board

Compare:

Stress can shift depending on the grammatical category or the surrounding words:

1. Noun-verb pairs:
   'record (N) — re'cord (V)

   'present (N) — pre'sent (V)

   'produce (N) — pro'duce (V)

   'subject (N) — sub'ject (V)

   'object (N) — ob'ject (V)
2. Stress shift in derived words:
   'photograph — pho'tography — photo'graphic

   'politics — po'litical — poli'tician

   'economy — e'conomic — e'conomical

   'democrat — de'mocratic — democ'ratically
3. Stress shift in compounds:
   'Madison Street — Madison 'Avenue

   'paper bag — paper 'towel

   'toy factory — toy 'store

Below are the names of famous landmarks and works of art. Practise saying them with correct stress and linking: